http://eezei.tigblog.org/ What's on the minds of young leaders from around the globe? en-us http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10566
I wish to welcome all organizations and individuals the world over, and particularly the Friends Associations, to visit the new Bibliotheca Alexandrina. We extend our sincere appreciation to all, and acknowledge your contributions and patronage in support of the Library over the past years, and encourage you to continue to offer your support for the next phase of operation and maintenance of this unique institution that will be a meeting place for dialogue and understanding between peoples and civilizations, and an important cultural institution for Egypt, the Region and the World.

I hope to meet you during this exciting Inauguration Year.

Sincerely,

Ismail Serageldin
Librarian of Alexandria
Director of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina



Egyptian Association Welcome Note


It is my honor and gives me great pleasure to initiate the new Egyptian Association of the Friends of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (EAFBA). Launched in Alexandria, where our headquarters is located, the EAFBA has members in all parts of Egypt. From Alexandria, the city and its citizens offer their full support to the new Library of Alexandria, and we hope that our activities will benefit both the library and help to drive the new cultural awareness that the opening of the library is bringing to the city. We have a dedicated Board for the Friends, and many active volunteers wishing to participate in all our activities. Our center will be at the Library itself, in a room that has already been turned over to the Friends for our use, and for all our international colleagues as well. It is a large room on Level 1 just above the main entrance, with space for secretarial support, as well as for small meetings.

One of our first important activities will be to make our plans to host the meetings of the International Friends Associations to coincide with the official Inauguration of the library. I am counting on the support of all the Friends around the world to ensure a successful outcome to the meetings.

I wish to invite you to visit the Friends Room to meet with your colleagues here and make use of our facilities for the benefit of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina.

Sincerely,
Secretary-General
Dr. Adel Abuzahra



Objectives of the Egyptian Friends



Assist Bibliotheca Alexandrina in carrying out its mission.
Support the Library in propagating culture, as well as being the link connecting it with civil society.
Promote the various activities of the Library.
Work to protect the Bibliotheca Alexandrina and its surrounding architectural environment
Welcome Friends and other visitors to the Library when appropriate
Establishing links with all international Friends of Bibliotheca Alexandrina Associations



Prospective activities



Organization of seminars, lectures, exhibitions, trips, etc...
Issuing a newsletter about the Library to the Egyptian Friends, as well as all the other Associations worldwide
Organizing media campaigns for activities and fundraising when requested by the Library and in accordance with the Organization's rules and regulations
Developing and training a cadre of members and volunteers to serve at the Library at appropriate functions, especially for the Inauguration
Establishing affiliated student societies within Egyptian universities.



Membership of the Egyptian Friends’ Association


Membership is open to all interested persons.
Full membership fees are 60 LE, in addition to a 25 L.E registration fee.
Partial membership fees are 25 L.E. with no registration fee.



Privileges of Membership in the Friends


The Bibliotheca Alexandrina will be a public/research Library used by people from all over the world through personal visits, telephone, post, fax and email, as well as through the Library's Internet website and portal.

Membership in The Friends of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, in any country, will enable you to:
Know about the Bibliotheca Alexandrina activities, and
Help widen public awareness through the library's role as a cultural complex and the part it plays in the economic well being of Egypt and its mission to the region and to the world through its services to social development.
Member's privileges include:
Use of the Friends Room in the Library, Level 1
Special programs of lectures and other events
The right to a Readers' Pass (subject to the library's normal regulations)
Invitations to special openings of Bibliotheca Alexandrina exhibitions
Occasional special offers from the Alexandrina
Announcements to keep you in touch with library events and activities



International Friends’ Fund-Raising Activities


Friends groups are independent organizations working to fulfill the aims and objectives established by the Library. They define their own modes of operation and types of fund-raising activities.

The External Relations Office and the Egyptian Friends will act as general coordinators for all the Friends. This will include setting up of the target contributions, developing the list of library needs with the help of the Outreach Office, source of information (press releases for the Friends' use), and planning the newsletter when the time comes.

The External Relations Office will offer organizational and administrative support if needed.



Proposed Targets for the Friends


At least one substantial yearly contribution from funds raised throughout the year. This could be done through a joint-Friends contribution through collaboration of all or several of the Friends Associations.

Encourage donations of books, manuscripts and other materials of the nation and region to the library through efforts of Friends' Members (suggested subjects, titles, etc. available from the Library) from national, regional and local sources
Provision of scholarships for the librarians and other library staff for advanced study, special courses and international meetings.

Purchase or subscription to programs applicable to the library systems.

Contribution of software programs when possible, and in accordance with the needs of the library.

Consider developing a “traveling” Booth/Poster Exhibit for Friends' use at Library and Book Conferences, lectures and other programs (suitable for shipping around the world as needed or one per country).

Certain expertise may be available through the Friends' Membership, which could be called upon by the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in a volunteer capacity.]]> Mon, 18 Aug 2003 18:38:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10566 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10565
The ancient Library of Alexandria was an amazing intellectual adventure that promoted knowledge and openness to the other, and for seven centuries was a beacon of learning and science.



Foundation of the Mouseion and the Library


The first Ptolemaic kings had determined to establish Egypt as the preeminent kingdom of their time. Alexandria became the center for science, arts, literature and philosophy. It was the policy of the Ptolemies to bring writers, poets, artists, and scientists to Alexandria from all over the ancient world to enrich the two unprecedented institutions: the “Mouseion” and the “Library”. The Mouseion, or shrine for the Muses (Museum in Latin) was the first scientific institute and the greatest university in ancient times. The Library was the first universal library.

There is hardly any doubt that it was Demetrius of Phalerum (an Athenian statesman, peripatetic philosopher and the counselor of Ptolemy I Soter since c. 297 BC) who suggested to King Ptolemy I Soter the idea of establishing a great research center in Alexandria to be known as the Mouseion with an important library attached to it. The precise date of the foundation of these two institutions is unspecified but it is probable that Soter took the very first measures towards their establishment in c. 290 BC, then the task was fulfilled by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, for it is well settled that both the Library and the Mouseion flourished and offered the ancient world their unique achievements during the reign of Philadelphus.
Foundation of the “Daughter Library”


At the beginning, there was the Library close to the Mouseion within the precincts of the royal palaces overlooking the great harbor. A little more than half a century later, when the amount of books acquired exceeded its capacity, it was decided to open an additional facility to accommodate the surplus books. This “Daughter Library” was incorporated into the Serapeum, or Temple of Serapis, which was situated at a distance from the royal quarter, in the Egyptian district south of the city. The Serapeum “Daughter Library” soon developed into a proper library and in the Roman period it became an active center of learning.



Chief Librarians


The Librarian of Alexandria (the chief of the library) was one of the highest and most honorable official posts and was appointed by the king himself. The chief librarian was usually chosen from the most prominent persons in science or literature. They personally enriched scholarship in Alexandria.
Unfortunately, there is no agreement (beyond Demetrius of Phaleron as the founding leader of the ancient Library) on any one list of the Library’s chief librarians. The most probable list is the following:
o Zenodotus of Ephesus (c.285- c.270 BC)
o Apollonius of Rhodes (c.270-245 BC)
o Eratosthenes of Cyrene (245-204/1 BC)
o Aristophanes of Byzantium (204/1-189/6 BC)
o Apollonius (Eidographos) (189/6-175 BC)
o Aristarchus of Samothrace (175-145 BC)
o Kydas (one of the Spearmen)(145-116 BC)



Holdings and Collections


The ancient Library was the only truly universal library. Although no exact count exists, probably at its peak it held some 700,000 scrolls, equivalent to about 100-125,000 printed books today. The Library also encouraged translations, and the Septuagint, the first translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew to Greek, took place there. The Ptolemaic kings paid special attention to enrich the Library with the treasures of knowledge in all fields and branches of knowledge. They were anxious to acquire originals of works and the most valuable collections, beyond buying and copying books. They searched each ship that visited Alexandria and if a book was found, it would be taken to the Library to be copied and the copy would be returned to the owner.



The Library Vanishes


Despite serious contradictions between different studies on the fate of the Library of Alexandria, we can piece together the history of its destruction over some 450 years. The first fire was in 48 BC during the Alexandrian war in which Caesar became involved to support Cleopatra VII against her brother Ptolemy XIII. According to some sources nearly 40,000 books were burned in the fire of 48 BC, other versions of the story place the number at 400,000. Marc Anthony compensated Cleopatra with the gift of the 200,000 scrolls from Pergamum. The Mouseion itself was destroyed along with the Royal Quarter sometime in the third century AD during the strife and accompanying power struggles that shook the Roman Empire.

The “Daughter Library” survived till the end of the fourth century. A decree by Emperor Theodosius in 391 AD forbade non-Christian (pagan) religions. Theophilus (the Bishop of Alexandria from 385 to 412 AD) destroyed the Serapeum and its “Daughter Library” as being the house of pagan doctrine. Scholars survived for another generation till the murder of Hypatia in 415 AD and the end of the era of Alexandrian scholarship. In 415 A.D., the Christian historian Orosius visited Alexandria and reported: “There are temples nowadays, which we have seen, whose bookcases have been emptied by our men. And this is a matter that admits no doubt” (Orosius 6.15.32). His statement confirms that the library never existed since the fifth century. This was over two centuries before the Arab conquest to Egypt in 642 A.D.]]> Mon, 18 Aug 2003 18:02:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10565 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10476 activities and celebrations today to mark International Youth Day and its
theme of youth employment for 2003. Below is a selection of some of the
activities planned by members of the YES Global Alliance.

On behalf of the YES Campaign Office in Boston I take this opportunity to
congratulate the hard work of the volunteers and coordinators working on
today's activities. Everywhere the results of your hard work are bearing
fruit, and there is more evidence of that below. Let's celebrate
International Youth Day 2003!

Fred Clark

Pakistan

The Pakistan National Youth Service (PNYS), a province-wide youth
volunteerism program launches today from Lahore by YES Network Pakistan.
Ali Khan, YES Coordinator, says the national service program will
subsequently be extended to other provinces.

"A valuable national asset of 100 YES volunteers, all between 15 and 29
years of age will commit to dedicate a valuable part of their lives, a
period of one full year, to community service, to demonstrate their
capacity for involvement in societal change and uplift. This project will
also immensely contribute to improving the employability skills of the
youth of Pakistan."
Contact: Ali Khan < aliaccessed@hotmail.com>.

Namibia

YES Namibia is very busy today. The YES Namibia Coordinator is attending a
YES Regional Consultative Workshop from 12-14 August 2003 in Johannesburg.
The National Youth Council is also hosting a ICT/NEPAD conference from the
11-14 August 2003. In addition, members of the network are also holding a
press conference today involving different stakeholders in youth
employment.

One of the panelists will be the Minister of Higher Education, Training and
Employment Creation, Hon. Nahas Angula, the Patron of the YES Namibia
Network. Mr Donald Charumbira, the Secretary General of the World Assembly
of Youth is also assisting in the preparations and will also be a panelist.
The press conference will be broadcast on national radio networks,
according to Coordinator Samuel Agies Aochamub.
Contact: Samuel Agies Aochamub < info@youthcouncil-namibia.org>.

Argentina

Today, YES Argentina and partner organization Pastoral Youth is hosting a
Roundtable Discussion on Youth and Employment: Ideas and Proposals for
Public Politics. The event is sponsored by the government's National Youth
Directorate and the Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences.

Coordinator Dacil Acevedo says the objectives of the roundtable are to
create a space for reflection and discussion on youth employment. "It is
also to share visions and strategies that will help generate public
policies that have a real impact in this area. Finally, we hope to help
reach a consensus between public officials and representatives of
organizations to develop concrete actions in this field."
Contact: Dacil Acevedo Riquelme .

Paraguay

YES Paraguay is organizing a public debate on "Poverty and Youth
Entrepreneurship" from a multi-sectoral perspective with the help of the
local UNDP office.

Organizer Mirian Nunez says the objectives of the debate are to analyze the
current situation from a multi-sectoral perspective. "We will do so by
considering the possibilities of entering the workforce and youth
entrepreneurship based on the realities of our population. It is a
population that is predominantly made up of youth who have few
opportunities to enter the labor market."
Contact: Mirian Nunez .

Tanzania

Youth in Tanzania will march in a Peace Rally for Youth Employment today,
according to YES Coordinator Kaanaeli Kaal. "Youth will carry posters
through the streets carrying powerful messages about youth employment, and
there will also be a variety of public debates and sporting activities",
she said. The day's events are organized by YES Tanzania lead organization
the Tanda Youth Development Association (TAYODEA) in collaboration with
other Youth NGOs.
Contact: Kaanaeli Kaal < kaanaeli@hotmail.com>.

Nigeria

YES Nigeria is participating in a day's celebration in Abuja, capital of
Nigeria. Celebrations are hosted by the Women's Development Center, and YES
Nigeria Coordinator, James Olawale Ajani says "this year's IYD focuses on
"Finding decent and productive work for young people everywhere". On this
International Youth Day, let us ensure that we young people are given the
opportunity to contribute to the development and the progress of this
nation."
Contact: James Olawale Ajani . Tel. 234-080-330
14234

Benin

YES Benin is organizing a full day of activities today. The highlight of
the day is the presentation of YES Benin's National Action Plan for Youth
Employment. Coordinator Honvou Toussaint reports that officials are
attending from a number of Ministries, local government and UN agencies. He
says the day's objective is "to awaken the awareness of development actors
on the situation of youth employment in Benin and to search for suitable
convenient solutions together."
Contact: Toussaint Y. HONVOU . Tel. +229 96 46 46

Albania

YES Albania is hosting a seminar today as part of a summer-long Work Camp.
Organizers report the seminar is focusing on the use of the internet as an
organizational tool. Coordinator Floriana Hima reports the activities are
organized by a partnership between Albania's National Youth Council, the
Albanian Youth Parliament, and the Ministry of Culture Youth and Sport.
Contact: Floriana Hima . Tel. 355 69 209 5487

Somalia

Coordinator Faiza Abdi Noor reports a celebration will take place today in
the Puntland city of Bosaso. "All youth organizations in the area of YES
Somalia along with the local UN office and other international
organizations have been preparing for a celebration."
Contact: Faiza Abdi Noor < faiza_abdi@hotmail.com>.

Guinnea Bissau

YES Guinea Bissau is holding a press conference as well as an animation
musical and cultural sports, according to Coordinator Algassimo Ba.
Organizations invited include all UN Agencies in Guinea Bissau, the
Ministry of Youth, NGOs, and the Chamber of Commerce, he says.
Contact: Algassimo Ba < algassimo@hotmail.com>.

Romania

YES Romania is hosting a celebration today with sixty young people from
twelve different countries. Coordinator Rodica Pop says "we are expecting
youth from Romania, Moldovia, Ukraine, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic,
Italy, Spain, Scotland, Holland, Macedonia, Kosovo, Kuwait, Nigeria and
Egypt. They are all in town for the 4th Session of the Young General
Assembly."

South Africa

In South Africa, a three-day Regional Consultation Workshop on Youth
Employment starts today in Johannesburg. Hosted by the Youth Development
Network (YDN), this workshop forms part of YDN's Regional Support Plan
(RSP). This plan seeks to promote and stimulate youth employment in the
region through various targeted initiatives. The main aim of the workshop
will be to win collective support on the implementation of the plan. YES
Networks from Southern Africa will be participating in the workshop.

Organizer Hlanga Mqushulu says "the support for this process from the YES
Country Networks has been tremendous."
Contact: Hlanga Mqushulu .
]]> Tue, 12 Aug 2003 16:58:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10476 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10475
Dear Friends,

Today is one of our favorite days ? the International Youth Day! On behalf
of the Global Campaign for Youth Employment ? the YES Campaign, I want to
restate our commitment to working tirelessly to promote this year's theme -
youth employment! Last year the Alexandria Youth Employment Summit placed
the issue of youth employment firmly on the global agenda.

As we celebrate our young people, let us also reflect on the challenges
youth face, and take stock of the youth employment crisis unfolding before
us. Data fails to reflect the true nature of youth unemployment, leaving
researchers to guess at the real rate. However, we do know that given the
fact that over 3 billion people are below the age of 25 all around the
world (UNFPA, 1998), large investment must be made to effectively address
the youth employment challenge. Research, capacity building, skills
training and policy formulation must begin to focus more directly on youth
livelihoods given the current statistics. Young people themselves must
ensure that this issue is given the priority it deserves.

The YES Campaign is working as a partner organization with the UN Youth
Employment Network and appreciates the high-level attention being provided
to this issue by them.

As always the YES Country Networks are doing breakthrough work under the
leadership of young people. They stand ready to work alongside other
stakeholders to fulfill the goals of the YES Campaign.

In solidarity

]]> Tue, 12 Aug 2003 16:57:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10475 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10452 In some countries, men are legally allowed to have sex with animals, but the animals must be female. Having sexual relations with a male animal is punishable by death.
(Like THAT makes sense.)
> *~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
In some countries, a male doctor may legally examine a
woman's genitals, but is prohibited from looking directly at them during the examination.
He may only see their reflection in a mirror.
(Do they look different reversed?)
*~*~**~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
In some countriesdoctors are banned from looking at the genitals of a corpse.
This also applies to undertakers; the sex
organs of the deceased must be covered with a brick or piece of wood at all times.
(A brick??)
*~*~**~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
The penalty for masturbation in Indonesia is decapitation.
(Much worse than "going blind!")
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
There are men in Guam whose full-time job is to travel
the countryside and deflower young virgins, who pay them for the privilege of having sex for the first time... Reason: under Guam law, it is expressly forbidden for virgins to marry.
(Let's just think for a minute; is there
any job anywhere else in the world that even comes close to this?)
Okay...um...I don't think so!
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
In Hong Kong, a betrayed wife is legally allowed to kill her adulterous husband, but may only do so with her bare
hands.
The husband's lover, on the other hand, may be killed in any manner desired.
(Ah! Justice!)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
Topless saleswomen are legal in Liverpool,
England - but only in tropical fish stores.
(But of course!)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
In Cali, Colombia, a woman may only have sex with her husband, and the first time this happens, her mother must be in the room to witness the act.
(Makes one shudder at the thought.)
*~*~*~*~**~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~**~*~*
In Santa Cruz, Bolivia, it is illegal for a man to have sex with a woman and her daughter at the same time.
(I presume this was a big enough problem that they had to pass this law?)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
In Maryland, it is illegal to sell condoms from vending machines with one exception: Prophylactics may be dispensed from a vending machine only "in places where alcoholic beverages are sold for consumption on the
premises."
(Is this a great country or what? Not as great as Guam!)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
Banging your head against a wall uses 150 calories an hour.
(Who volunteers for this stuff?)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
Humans and dolphins are the only species that have sex
for pleasure.
(Is that why Flipper was always smiling?)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
The ant can lift 50 times its own weight, can pull 30 times its own weight and always falls over on its right side when intoxicated.
(From drinking little bottles of...?)
(Did the govt. pay for this research??)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
Butterflies taste with their feet.
(Ah, geez) !
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
An ostrich's eye is bigger than it's brain.
(I know some people like that.)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
Starfish don't have brains.
(I know some people like that too)
*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*
And, the best for last.....
Turtles can breathe through their butts.
(Do you think they have bad breath?)
]]> Mon, 11 Aug 2003 16:31:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10452 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10409 Pyramids were constructed by large work gangs over a period of many years. The Pyramid Age spans over a thousand years, starting in the third dynasty and ending in the Second Intermediate Period. The Greek historian
Herodotus was told that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build the Great Pyramid at Giza. Scholars today, however, think it may have been built by only 20,000 men over 20 years.

A pyramid's large square base creates a very stable structure. A number of astronomical observations were used to precisely align its corners with the four cardinal points. Approximately 80% of the building materials are found in the lower half. This means that relatively few stone blocks were hauled to the upper levels. Since pyramids are solid, no walls or pillars were required to support the structure. Despite its simple design, a pyramid is an incredible engineering feat. Several theories attempt to explain how pyramids were constructed, but for now, the mystery has yet to be solved.

One theory suggests that causeways were used to haul the stone blocks on wooden sleds up the side of the pyramids. The ramps were lubricated with water to reduce friction when hauling the blocks. As few as 10 men were needed to drag a stone block up a ramp. There may have been several ramps on each side of the pyramid at different levels, and a ramp may have been coiled around the pyramid as it grew in height. Once a stone block reached its desired level, wooden rockers may have been used to manoeuvre it into position.

Another theory suggests that a wooden crane with a counterweight on one end may have been used to lift the blocks from one level to the next. This theory has been disputed, since the Egyptians did not have access to trees that were strong enough for this type of work. The average weight of the stone blocks used to build the Great Pyramid at Giza has been estimated at 2.5 tonnes (2.5 tons). Such an enormous weight would undoubtedly break a wooden crane before the block could be lifted.

Another possibility involves the use of pulleys to hoist the blocks up the ramps and fulcrums to manipulate the blocks into place. Pulleys were used on ships at the time.

The pyramids were probably not built by slaves because slave labour was not widely used in Egypt at the time. Peasant farmers, however, were required to spend a number of weeks working on construction projects. This provided the paid labour needed to build these gigantic structures.

Since the fields were under water during the summer, wages earned in building the gigantic pyramids supplemented the family's income.

Pyramids did not stand alone; they were part of a funerary complex. The complex includes a processional causeway that links a funerary temple to the pyramid, solar barques buried on the four sides of the pyramid, and mastabas and smaller pyramids where the family of the king and nobles were buried.

The pyramid built by King Sahure (2491-2477 B.C., Old Kingdom) is the largest of the three at Abousir and the one that is best preserved. Today, it is a mound of rubble, but the mortuary temple on the east face is still discernible. Its striking features are the red granite date-palm columns and the deeply incised hieroglyphs of the king's name and titles on the huge granite blocks.
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 09:40:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10409 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10408
The Great Pyramid of Cheops, the largest of the three at Giza, is estimated to comprise as many as 2.5 million limestone blocks with an average weight estimated at 2.5 tonnes (2.5 tons). The entire structure was encased in a fine white polished limestone brought from the hills at Tura, on the opposite side of the Nile. This highly prized material was removed in the 16th century and used to decorate mosques in Cairo.

When completed, the Great Pyramid stood 146.6 metres (481 feet) tall, and its base was 230.3 metres (756 feet) square. The capstones (pyramidions) of all the pyramids were made of solid polished granite. For conservation reasons, they have been removed to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, where they are on display.

At the moment, only the Great Pyramid is open to the public. (For conservation reasons, the others are closed.)

After climbing a number of steps, one enters through a narrow passage on the north side. This passage leads to a sloping corridor with a low ceiling where one is obliged to bend over while climbing up a ramp. The ramp leads to a passage with a high ceiling called the Grand Gallery, from where stairs lead to the king's burial chamber. Good walking shoes and light clothes are advised for anyone entering the pyramid. The climb is strenuous and the narrow passages tend to trap the heat.

The Giza Sphinx

The Great Sphinx at Giza, near Cairo, is probably the most famous sculpture in the world. With a lion’s body and a human head, it represents Ra-Horakhty, a form of the powerful sun god, and is the incarnation of royal power and the protector of the temple doors .

The Sphinx is the oldest and longest stone sculpture from the Old Kingdom. During the eighteenth dynasty, it was called "Horus of the Horizon" and "Horus of the Necropolis", the sun god that stands above the horizon. In later times, many sphinx images were carved in smaller sizes or in cameos with the faces of the reigning monarchs. The face of the Great Sphinx is believed to be that of Chephren, the fourth-dynasty pharaoh who built the second-largest pyramid in the Giza triad. In the image of the Sphinx, the pharaoh was seen as a powerful god.
Carved out of a natural limestone outcrop, the Sphinx is 19.8 metres (65 feet) high and 73.2 metres (240 feet) long. It is located a short distance from the Great Pyramid.

Between the enormous paws is a stele that records a dream Tuthmosis IV had when he was a prince. He dreamt that he stopped to rest in the shadow of the Sphinx during a hunting expedition in the desert. While asleep, the Sphinx spoke to him, saying that he would become king if he cleared away the sand that all but buried the Sphinx. When he became king, Tuthmosis IV cleared the sand and erected a stele that tells the story of his dream. After the work was completed, a chapel was built next to the Sphinx to venerate this sun god.

Down through the ages, attempts have been made to protect the Sphinx from the effects of wind and sand erosion. A restoration project is currently under way to replace the stone casing that once protected this monument.

Sphinxes are sometimes represented with a female face. For example, a sphinx of Queen Hatshepsut was sculpted with her face and a pharaoh's beard. Queen Tiy, wife of Amenhotep III, was the first to have a truly female sphinx sculpted in her likeness. Besides a female face without a beard, her sphinx had breasts and wings.

The Sphinx differs from other deities in that it has an animal body and a human head, whereas most other deities have human bodies and animal heads. One explanation for this anomaly is that the Sphinx is the earthly representation of the constellation Leo, which has a lion’s body. Images of the sphinx are found in various sizes and shapes, as the collection at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the temples throughout Egypt attest.

The Giza Pyramids and Sphinx have been the focus of attention for New Age seekers, following a pronouncement by the American psychic Edgar Cayce. In a trance state, Cayce spoke of vaults at the base of the Sphinx and a Hall of Records. He suggested that a secret passage exists under the Sphinx. This is supposed to lead to a tomb where the annals of the lost continent of Atlantis are hidden for safe keeping.

Despite the intrigue surrounding this psychic reading, modern archaeologists have not yet found any evidence of a secret passage under the Sphinx. This story, however, continues to stir the imagination and contribute to the mystique of ancient Egypt.


]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 09:33:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10408 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10407
King Djoser established a powerful centralized administration based in the city of Memphis, not far from the present-day city of Cairo. One of his officials was the famous architect and scholar Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid, a pharaoh's tomb at Saqqara that looks like a stairway to heaven. This tomb is an elaboration of the original mastabas, with its central burial chamber.

In the fourth dynasty, the Pharaoh Snefru built the first geometrically true pyramids at Dahshur, south of Saqqara. He started by adding a smooth casing over the steps of two pyramids that were built by his predecessors. He then built two pyramids of his own.

The pyramids built during the fifth dynasty had a core of rubble and mud bricks, and a limestone facing. When the limestone was removed, the core collapsed.

Why the pharaohs chose a pyramid for their tombs is still a mystery. Perhaps the shape originated from the creation story, in which the world is conceived as a flat plane with four corners representing the north, east, south and west. When the sky rose up, forming an invisible central axis like a pole or tree in the centre, the world took on the shape of a pyramid. The pyramid may also represent the primeval mound that rose out of chaos and provided a resting place for the sun god, Re. Its peak may symbolize the point where sacred energy from the sky world enters the human world. Another theory suggests that when Re became more important in the Egyptian religion, the pyramid (like the obelisk) represented a ray of the sun.
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 09:26:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10407 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10406 The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, tombs, temples and palaces out of stone, the most durable of all building materials. Although earthquakes, wars and the forces of nature have taken their toll, the remains of Egypt’s monumental architectural achievements are visible across the land, a tribute to the greatness of this civilization. These building projects took a high degree of architectural and engineering skill, and the organization of a large workforce consisting of highly trained craftsmen and laborers.

Apart from the pyramids, Egyptian buildings were decorated with paintings, carved stone images, hieroglyphs and three-dimensional statues. The art tells the story of the pharaohs, the gods, the common people and the natural world of plants, birds and animals. The beauty and grandeur of these sites are beyond compare. How the ancient Egyptians were able to construct these massive structures using primitive tools is still a mystery.

Mastaba Tombs

Mastaba tombs surround the pyramids of the Old Kingdom. Courtiers and families of the monarch were buried in these low rectangular brick or stone structures. Like the pyramids, they were built on the west side of the Nile (symbol of death, where the sun falls into the underworld).

During the Old Kingdom, Egyptians believed that only the souls of kings went on to enjoy life with the gods. The souls of the nobles, on the other hand, continued to inhabit the tomb and needed to be nourished by daily offerings of food and drink. When people died, their ka (the life force or soul of the deceased) was released. To encourage the soul to return to the body, the body was preserved and a statuette in the likeness of the deceased was placed in the tomb. Statuettes called shabti or shawabti, (slaves for the soul) were also placed in the tombs to perform work on behalf of the deceased in the afterlife.

The actual burial chamber was at the base of a deep vertical shaft below a flat-roofed stone structure. A false door was carved on the interior tomb wall near the entrance to the shaft. Often an image of the deceased was carved in the false door in order to entice the soul to enter the body. For the comfort and well-being of the deceased, the burial chamber was filled with material goods and food offerings, and the walls were decorated with scenes of daily activities. The mastabas were designed to ensure the well-being of the deceased for all eternity.

Pyramids

The spectacular pyramids that have made Egypt so famous are truly one of the world's greatest architectural wonders. One of the oldest mysteries surrounding ancient Egypt concerns the building of the pyramids. How did humans move such massive blocks of stone using only Stone Age tools? The Egyptians left thousands of illustrations depicting daily life in the Old Kingdom. Curiously enough, none of them show how pyramids were built.

A pyramid is a tomb; a four-sided stone structure that symbolizes the sacred mountain, humanity’s universal striving to reach the heavens. The ancient belief in raising the human spirit towards the gods is the quintessential purpose behind the construction of pyramids. Even today, pyramids are metaphors for humanity’s search for higher consciousness.

The IMAX film Mysteries of Egypt features the pyramids at Giza, just west of Cairo. They are surrounded by smaller pyramids, mastabas (tombs of nobles and courtiers), funerary temples, processional ramps and the Great Sphinx. Several theories attempt to explain the construction of the pyramids, but no one knows for sure how they were built. This is one of the great mysteries of ancient Egypt.
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 09:23:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10406 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10405 Clothing and adornment

The ancient Egyptians were very particular about cleanliness and personal appearance. People who were poorly groomed were considered inferior. Both men and women used cosmetics and wore jewellery. One item of jewellery, the amulet, was believed to protect the owners and give them strength.

Flax grown by farmers was woven into fine linen for clothing. Working-class men wore loincloths or short kilts, as well as long shirt-like garments tied with a sash at the waist. Kilts were made from a rectangular piece of linen that was folded around the body and tied at the waist. Wealthy men wore knee-length shirts, loincloths or kilts and adorned themselves with jewellery – a string of beads, armlets and bracelets. Working-class women wore full-length wraparound gowns and close-fitting sheaths. Elite women enhanced their appearance with make-up, earrings, bracelets and necklaces.

Both men and women wore sandals made of papyrus. Sandals made of vegetable fibres or leather were a common type of footwear. Nevertheless, men and women, including the wealthy, were frequently portrayed barefoot.

The Royal Image

Clothing

When royalty, gods and goddesses were portrayed in statues, temple carvings and wall paintings, it was the beauty and self-confidence of the subject that was conveyed. Egyptian artistic conventions idealized the proportions of the body. Men are shown with broad shoulders, slim bodies, and muscular arms and legs; and women have small waists, flat stomachs and rounded busts. Both wear elegant clothing and jewellery, and stand tall with their heads held high. Their stately appearance commands the respect of all who gaze upon their portraits.

In the Old Kingdom, goddesses and elite women were portrayed wearing a sheath with broad shoulder straps. In the New Kingdom, they wore sheaths decorated with gold thread and colorful beadwork, and a type of sari; the sheath had only one thin strap. These dresses were made of linen, and decorated with beautifully colored patterns and beadwork. By the reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 B.C.), women's garments were made of very light see-through linen.

The men wore knee-length shirts, loincloths or kilts made of linen. Leather loincloths were not uncommon, however. Their garments were sometimes decorated with gold thread and colorful beadwork. The priests, viziers and certain officials wore long white robes that had a strap over one shoulder, and semi-priests (one of the ranks in the priesthood) wore leopard skins over their robes.

Hairstyles

The Egyptian elite hired hairdressers and took great care of their hair. Hair was washed and scented, and sometimes lightened with henna. Children had their heads shaved, except for one or two tresses or a plait worn at the side of the head. This was called the side lock of youth, a style worn by the god Horus when he was an infant.

Both men and women sometimes wore hairpieces, but wigs were more common. Wigs were made from human hair and had vegetable-fibre padding on the underside. Arranged into careful plaits and strands, they were often long and heavy. They may have been worn primarily at festive and ceremonial occasions, like in eighteenth-century Europe.

Priests shaved their heads and bodies to affirm their devotion to the deities and to reinforce their cleanliness, a sign of purification.

Make-up

Elite men and women enhanced their appearance with various cosmetics: oils, perfumes, and eye and facial paints. Both sexes wore eye make-up, most often outlining their lids with a line of black kohl. When putting on make-up, they used a mirror, as we do today.

The Egyptians used mineral pigments to produce make-up. Galena or malachite was ground on stone palettes to make eye paint. Applied with the fingers or a kohl pencil (made of wood, ivory or stone), eye paint emphasized the eyes and protected them from the bright sunlight. During the Old Kingdom, powdered green malachite was brushed under the eyes. Rouge to color the face and lips was made from red ochre. Oils and fats were applied to the skin to protect it, mixed into perfumes, and added to the incense cones worn on top of the head. Both men and women wore perfumed cones on their heads. It has been suggested that the cones were made of tallow or fat, which melted gradually, releasing fragrance. No examples of the cones have been found.

Jewellery

From the earliest times, jewellery was worn by the elite for self-adornment and as an indication of social status. Bracelets, rings, earrings, necklaces, pins, belt buckles and amulets were made from gold and silver inlaid with precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian and amethyst. Faience and glass were also used to decorate pieces of jewellery.

The elegant design of Egyptian jewellery often reflected religious themes. Motifs included images of the gods and goddesses; hieroglyphic symbols; and birds, animals and insects that played a role in the creation myth. Commonly seen were the scarab; the Eye of Re; lotus and papyrus plants; the vulture and the hawk; the cobra; and symbols such as the Isis knot, the shen ring (symbol of eternity) and the ankh (symbol of life). A person’s jewellery was placed in his or her grave to be used in the afterworld, along with many other personal items.
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:45:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10405 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10404 Trades and crafts

Stone and clay pots comprise one of the most important categories of Egyptian artifacts. They help us understand the evolution of the culture from the Predynastic Period to the end of the pharaonic era. The banks of the Nile provided the mud and clay used to make ceramic ware. Food was cooked in clay pots, which also served as containers for grains, water, wine, beer, flour and oils. Baskets were the other type of container found in the home. They were made from reeds and the leaves of date palms that grew along the Nile.

Carpenters

Skilled carpenters manufactured a wide range of products, from roofing beams to furniture and statues. Their tools included saws, axes, chisels, adzes, wooden mallets, stone polishers and bow drills. Since wood suitable for building was scarce in ancient Egypt, it was imported from countries such as Lebanon.

Stonemasons and Sculptors

Sculptors had to adhere to very strict stylistic rules. The stone was first shaped and smoothed by masons using stone hammers. For bas-reliefs, draftsmen outlined images on the stone before a team of sculptors began carving them with copper chisels. A fine abrasive powder was used to polish the stone before the images were painted.

Bead Making

Various types of semi-precious stones were used in jewellery. To make beads, artisans broke stones and rolled them between other stones to shape them. A bow drill was used to drill a hole through the beads, which were then rolled in a recessed receptacle containing an abrasive to refine their shape

Brick makers and potters

The word iqdou (Nile mud) was used to designate the profession of the brick maker and the potter, who used mud from the Nile to make their products.
The brick maker had one of the more menial occupations in ancient Egypt. To make bricks, Nile mud was mixed with sand, straw and water, slapped into wooden moulds and then slapped out onto the ground to dry in the sun. Bricks were used extensively in ancient Egypt for building everything from peasants' homes to the pharaoh's palaces.

Potters produced vast quantities of utilitarian vessels. Cow dung, water and straw were mixed with mud to produce clay ready for the potter's wheel. The exterior surface of pots was often covered with a reddish slip and/or decorated using a stylus or comb before the pots were fired in kilns.

Merchants and Trade

In a good year, the quantity of grain harvested in Egypt far exceeded the needs of the country. The grain exported to neighbouring countries provided a rich source of revenue for the Egyptian Treasury. Egypt's economy functioned on a barter system. In the marketplace, stone weights were used to determine the value of grain and other rations.

Egyptian merchants developed an extensive trade network for procuring goods from other countries. Gold from the mines of eastern Nubia, for example, was traded for raw materials or manufactured goods.

Mistress of the House

Women of all classes could earn wages, own property and employ workers, but their main role was within the family. The title most women had was "mistress of the house". They were considered equal with men before the law, and could sue for damages and divorce.

Musical scenes on murals seem to indicate a predominance of female musicians during the New Kingdom. Music served both secular and religious purposes, with many high-status New Kingdom women holding the position of "chantress" to a local god. Harps, lutes, flutes, oboes, tambourines and sistra (rattles) were the main instruments used. ]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:36:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10404 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10403 Transportation

The Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown. Ships and boats were the main means of transporting people and goods around the country. Egyptian watercraft had a high stern and bow, and by the New Kingdom, they were equipped with cabins at both ends. The prevailing winds blew south, propelling boats traveling in that direction, while boats heading north relied on the current and oars.

The simplest type of boat used in ancient Egypt was the skiff, made from papyrus reeds that were tied together. Since the reeds are filled with air pockets, they are particularly buoyant. Skiffs were used for fishing and hunting game in the marshes, or for traveling short distances.

Large wooden ships were equipped with square sails and oars. Their planks, held together with rope, expanded in the water, making the vessel watertight. Acacia wood was used in Lower Nubia to build the ships that transported massive blocks of stone from the Aswan district to the building sites of the pyramids, temples and cities along the Nile. Ships could travel with ease up and down the Nile from the delta region to the First Cataract at Aswan.

Boats also served a ceremonial purpose. They were used to move images of gods from temple to temple, and to transport the mummified bodies of royals and nobles across the Nile to their tombs on the west bank. Even the sun god traveled by boat (the solar bark) on his daily journey across the sky. Today, the Egyptians still cross the Nile by boat. The vessel they use is the felucca, a small boat with a large triangular sail.

The roads in ancient Egypt were little more than paths. To get around on land, people walked, rode donkeys or traveled by wagon. They carried goods on their head, but the donkeys and wagons hauled heavier loads. Camels were unknown in Egypt until the end of the pharaonic period.

The wheel was probably introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic people who invaded the country and ruled it in the fifteenth and sixteenth dynasties. The Hyksos most likely had horse-drawn chariots, which were used in warfare. New Kingdom pharaohs and nobles adopted this mode of transportation for hunting expeditions, but it was not used for travel by the common people. ]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:26:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10403 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10402 Shelter

Most houses were made of brick. The banks of the Nile provided the mud used to make bricks. Brick makers collected mud, added straw and water to it as needed, and stomped it with their feet until it reached the right consistency. The mixture was then placed in a mould. Once shaped, the bricks were removed from the mould and left on the ground to dry in the sun.

Egyptian peasants would have lived in simple mud-brick homes containing only a few pieces of furniture: beds, stools, boxes and low tables.

Craft workers lived in one- or two-storey flat-roofed dwellings made of mud bricks. The walls and roof would have been covered with plaster and painted. Inside, there was a reception room, a living room, bedrooms and a cellar in which food and beverages were stored. Food was prepared in an outdoor kitchen equipped with a mud-brick oven. Stairs on the exterior of the house led to a roof-top terrace.

The homes of the wealthy were larger and more luxurious. Spacious reception and living rooms opened onto a central garden courtyard with a fish pond and flowering plants. Each bedroom had a private bathroom, and the walls, columns and ceilings were painted with beautiful designs inspired by nature. Elaborate and highly decorated furniture included beds, chairs, boxes and tables. Painted clay pots and vessels, as well as alabaster bowls and jars, were also found in the homes of the nobles.

Royal palaces, frequently cities in themselves, included separate residences, a temple and a workers’ village .
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:21:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10402 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10401
Food

Agriculture

Each summer, starting in July, the Nile River rose, flooding the low-lying plains on either side. Swollen by the monsoon rains of Ethiopia, it deposited a layer of black soil over the land, rich in nutrients needed for growing crops. The river rose about 8 meters (27 feet) on average. If it rose 2.5 meters (8 feet) higher or lower, disaster struck. When it rose too high, villages were flooded, causing extensive damage and loss of life. When it did not rise high enough, the fields did not receive sufficient nutrients and moisture to support the crops, which resulted in famine.

Under normal conditions, the flood plains supported a rich variety of plants and animals that provided food for the ancient Egyptians. The vast majority of the people were involved in farming. When the flood waters began to recede in mid-September, farmers blocked canals to retain the water for irrigation. Still used today, the shaduf is a mechanical irrigation device used to conduct water from the canals to the fields. One person can operate it by swinging the bucket of water from the canal to the field.

Livestock was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel. Draft animals such as oxen increased agricultural productivity. Herdsmen and shepherds lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their animals in the marshes of the Nile.
Although the land was worked by the peasants, it was owned by the king, his officials and the temples. Farmers had to meet grain quotas, which were handed over to the owners as a form of taxation. They were allowed to keep a portion of the crops for their own benefit. If they did not produce the quantity expected, however, they were severely punished.

Food staples

The principal food crops, barley and emmer, were used to make beer and bread, the main staples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored in granaries until ready to be processed. The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of the country, so much was exported to neighbouring countries, providing a rich source of income for the Egyptian treasury.

A large variety of vegetables were grown, including onions, garlic, leeks, beans, lentils, peas, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers and lettuce. There were also fruits such as dates, figs, pomegranates, melons and grapes, and honey was produced for sweetening desserts. The Egyptian diet was supplemented by fish, fowl and meat, although peasants probably enjoyed meat only on special occasions. Domesticated animals raised for food included pigs, sheep and goats. Grapes were processed into wine for the noble class, but beer was the favorite drink of the common people. Food was served in pottery bowls, but no utensils were used for eating.

Hunting and fishing

Pharaohs and nobles participated in hunting, fishing and fowling expeditions, a means of recreation that had ritualistic and religious significance. Hunting scenes often depicted on temple walls and tombs reinforce the prowess of kings and nobles. Rabbits, deer, gazelles, bulls, oryx, antelopes, hippopotamuses, elephants and lions were among the wild animals hunted for their meat and skins.

Fishing allowed the working class to add variety to its diet. The poor substituted fish for meat, which they could not afford. The Nile, the marshes of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea offered them a rich variety of species. Fishing methods included the use of a hook and line, harpoons, traps and nets. Birds, including geese and ducks, were also hunted in the marshes and papyrus thickets along the Nile. Small fishing boats (skiffs) were made from papyrus reeds, which are naturally filled with air pockets, making them particularly buoyant. Skiffs were also used for hunting game in the Nile marshes.]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:16:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10401 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10400 Basic Facts

Official Name Arab Republic of Egypt

Capital : Cairo
Flag : Tricolor of red, white and black horizontal stripes, with a golden eagle on the white stripe.
Population : On 1/1/2003, the Egyptian population was estimated at approximately 67.313 million.

Area Around one million square km. of these, only around
55 thousands square km (i.e. 5.5%) are populated.

Borders
To the North: Mediterranean Sea
To the South: Sudan
To the East : Gaza Strip, Israel and the Red Sea
To the West : Libya

Language Arabic is the official language. English is widely spoken.

Climate Generally dry climate. Moderate temperatures and
humidity prevail on the Mediterranean coast, while in southern Egypt, the summer is hot and the winter is generally warm.

Currency Egyptian Pound (L.E.) = 100 Piasters.

Time Zone GMT + 2 . Egypt observes daylight saving time during the summer months.
]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 08:05:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10400 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667 http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10399 When the war ended, the nationalists began to press the British again for independence. In addition to their other reasons, the Egyptians were influenced by American president Woodrow Wilson, who was preaching self-determination for all nations. In September 1918, Egypt made the first moves toward the formation of a wafd, or delegation, to voice its demands for independence at the Paris Peace Conference. The idea for a wafd had originated among prominent members of the Umma Party, including Lutfi as Sayyid, Saad Zaghlul, Muhammad Mahmud, Ali Sharawi, and Abd al Aziz Fahmi.

On November 13, 1918, thereafter celebrated in Egypt as Yawm al Jihad (Day of Struggle), Zaghlul, Fahmi, and Sharawi had an audience with Sir Reginald Wingate, the British high commissioner. They demanded complete independence with the proviso that Britain be allowed to supervise the Suez Canal and the public debt. They also asked permission to go to London to put their case before the British government. On the same day, the Egyptians formed a delegation for this purpose, Al Wafd al Misri (known as the Wafd), headed by Saad Zaghlul. The British refused to allow the Wafd to proceed to London. On March 8, Zaghlul and three other members of the Wafd were arrested and thrown into Qasr an Nil prison. The next day, they were deported to Malta, an action that sparked the popular uprising of MarchApril 1919 in which Egyptians of all social classes participated. There were violent clashes in Cairo and the provincial cities of Lower Egypt, especially Tanta, and the uprising spread to the south, culminating in violent confrontations in Asyut Province in Upper Egypt.

The deportation of the Wafdists also triggered student demonstrations and escalated into massive strikes by students, government officials, professionals, women, and transport workers. Within a week, all of Egypt was paralyzed by general strikes and rioting. Railroad and telegraph lines were cut, taxi drivers refused to work, lawyers failed to appear for court cases, and demonstrators marched through the streets shouting pro-Wafdist slogans and demanding independence. Violence resulted, with many Egyptians and Europeans being killed or injured when the British attempted to crush the demonstrations with force.

On March 16, between 150 and 300 upper-class Egyptian women in veils staged a demonstration against the British occupation, an event that marked the entrance of Egyptian women into public life. The women were led by Safia Zaghlul, wife of Wafd leader Saad Zaghlul; Huda Sharawi, wife of one of the original members of the Wafd and organizer of the Egyptian Feminist Union; and Muna Fahmi Wissa. Women of the lower classes demonstrated in the streets alongside the men. In the countryside, women engaged in activities like cutting rail lines.

The upper-class women participating in politics for the first time assumed key roles in the movement when the male leaders were exiled or detained. They organized strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts of British goods and wrote petitions, which they circulated to foreign embassies protesting British actions in Egypt.

The women's march of March 16 preceded by one day the largest demonstration of the 1919 Revolution. More than 10,000 teachers, students, workers, lawyers, and government employees started marching at Al Azhar and wound their way to Abdin Palace where they were joined by thousands more, who ignored British roadblocks and bans. Soon, similar demonstrations broke out in Alexandria, Tanta, Damanhur, Al Mansurah, and Al Fayyum. By the summer of 1919, more than 800 Egyptians had been killed, as well as 31 Europeans and 29 British soldiers.

Wingate, the British high commissioner, understood the strength of the nationalist forces and the threat the Wafd represented to British dominance and had tried to persuade the British government to allow the Wafd to travel to Paris. However, the British government remained hostile to Zaghlul and the nationalists and adamant in rejecting Egyptian demands for independence. Wingate was recalled to London for talks on the Egyptian situation, and Milne Cheetham became acting high commissioner in January 1919. When the 1919 Revolution began, Cheetham soon realized that he was powerless to stop the demonstrations and admitted that matters were completely out of his control. Nevertheless, the government in London ordered him not to give in to the Wafd and to restore order, a task that he was unable to accomplish.

London decided to replace Wingate with a strong military figure, General Edmund Allenby, the greatest British hero of World War I. He was named special high commissioner and arrived in Egypt on March 25. The next day, he met with a group of Egyptian nationalists and ulama. After persuading Allenby to release the Wafd leaders and to permit them to travel to Paris, the Egyptian group agreed to sign a statement urging the people to stop demonstrating. Allenby, who was convinced that this was the only way to stop the revolt, then had to persuade the British government to agree. On April 7, Zaghlul and his colleagues were released and set out for Paris.]]> Sat, 09 Aug 2003 07:59:00 EDT http://eezei.tigblog.org/post/10399 31.1980556 29.919166731.198055629.9191667